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A Reader on Islam: Passages from Standard Arabic Writings Illustrative of the Beliefs and Practices of Muslims, Edited by Arthur Jeffery, Mouton & Co · 1962 · 'S-Gravenhage

Catechisms for the instruction of youth in the principles and practices of their religion are in use in Islamic countries as they are in Christian lands. There are, however, no official Islamic Catechisms formally sanctioned as authoritative by religious bodies and corresponding to such documents as the Westminster Catechism, the Augsburg Confession or the Full Catechism of Philaret. Many Muslim theologians of repute have prepared such catechisms, some of which have had wide use throughout the world of Islam. In more modem days, with the reorganization of the educational system in Muslim countries, what may be regarded as semi-official Catechisms have been issued for use in Schools and given the sanction of local Ministries of Education. A good example is the Turkish Mfishiman focukunun kitabi, compiled by Nurettin Artam and Nurettin Sevin, and printed at Istanbul in 1948 by the Press of the Ministry of Education. Many of these modern Catechisms show an awareness of Western criticism of Islam, but that here translated, the popular al-Ajwiba al-jaliya, (the Clear Answers), by Mubammad b. 'Abdallah al-Jurdani, an Egyptian religious leader from Damietta, represents the old standard orthodoxy of the Shafi'ite rite, little affected by modem ideas. The edition from which the translation has been made is that edited and published by the Cairo bookseller Abmad al-Maliji, bearing the imprint: "Fifth edition. Cairo, 1328 A.H." (1910 A.D.). 8vo. 72 pp.

Clear Answers

to Religious Questions according to the Authorities of the Shafi'ite Rite

It is an excellent book, of benefit to every student, but especially to the pupils in the higher and elementary Schools, composed by Muhammad ibn 'Abdallah al-Jurdani of Damietta, the Shafi'ite, whom may Allah - exalted be He - pardon.

In the Name of Allah, the Merciful, the Compassionate

Praise be to Allah for the gracious gift of Faith and Islam, and blessings and peace be upon our Master, Muhammad, who made clear to us the principles [of religion] and its rules.

He who hopes to attain those things that are desired, Muhammad ibn 'Abdallah al-Jurdani, says:

This book, a work that should be useful to every student, and particularly to the pupils of the higher and elementary Schools, is something that one of my beloved friends has been urging me to write. May Allah grant both him and me a good end. I have named it Clear Answers to Religious Questions according to the Authorities of the Shafi'ite Rite, and I beg Allah-exalted be He-to grant me success in this endeavour by the favour of His Prophet and all his family and Companions. He has power to do whatever He wishes, and to answer He is able.

An exposition of faith

Question: What is Faith (iman)?

Answer: Faith is that you should believe in Allah-exalted be He -and in His angels, His Books, His Apostles and the Last Day, and that you should believe in the predestination of both good and evil.

Q.: What is the meaning of faith in Allah - exalted be He?

A.: It is that you should believe firmly in your heart, be convinced of and confidently affirm that He is the true God who brought into existence all created things, that to Him are to be ascribed the attributes of perfection, that He is free from all defects and inabilities, and that some of His attributes must be known in particular.

Q.: What are those attributes?

A.: They are: existence, primordialness, everlastingness, non-phenornenality, self-subsistence, oneness, power, will, knowledge, life, sensibility, speech, and it is not possible that there be attributed to Him the opposites of these.

Q.: What are those opposites?

A.: They are: non-existence, recentness, ephemeralness, phenomenality, need of anything, plurality, inability, unwillingness, ignorance, death, insensibility, speechlessness. He-may He be exalted-may,in His own right, do everything that is possible or may leave it undone. Nothing is by any means incumbent on Him-exalted be He. The Most High has said (XXVIII, 68): "Thy Lord creates what He wills, and exercises choice."

Q.: What is the meaning of faith in the angels?

A.: It is that you should firmly believe in and confidently affirm their existence; that they are honoured servants of light nature who never disobey Allah in what He commands them but do what they are bidden; that they are bodies of light, i.e. are created from light, able to take various forms and cover great distances in but a moment of time, and so numerous that Allah Himself-exalted be He-alone knows their number. There are ten of them it is necessary to know by their names.

Q.: Who are the ten?

A.: They are: Gabriel, the one entrusted with revelation; Michael, who is in charge of the rains; Israf il, who has charge of the Trump; 'lzrai'il, who has charge of the taking of [men's] spirits; Munkar and Nakir, who are entrusted with the questioning [of the dead] in the grave; Ridwan, who is the Grand Chamberlain (khazin) of the Garden (i.e. Paradise); Malik, who is the Grand Chamberlain of the Fire (i.e., Hell); the two recorders of good and evil deeds, whose names are Raqib and 'Atid. Among them also are the Throne Bearers who at present are four, but to whom four will be added on the Day.

Q.: What is the meaning of faith in the Books?

A.: It is that you should firmly believe and confidently affirm that they are the speech of Allah - exalted be He - sent down to His Apostles upon whom be blessings and peace- and that all that they contain is truth. Among them are the Torah of our Master Moses, the Injil of our Master Jesus, the Zabur of our Master David, and the Furqan, i.e. the Qur'an of our Master Muhammad. May Allah's blessing and peace be upon him and upon them all.

Q.: What is the meaning of faith in the Apostles?

A.: It is that you should firmly believe and confidently affirm that Allah -exalted be He -sent them to mankind to guide them to the way of the truth, and that four things must be rightly asserted of them, and four things declared impossible on their part.

Q.:What are the four things that must be rightly asserted of them?

A.: They are truthfulness, faithfulness, intelligence and delivery of the message.

Q.: What are the four things that must be declared impossible on their

part?

A.: They are untruthfulness, unfaithfulness, stupidity and the concealment of the message. It is permissible to assert of them that they are subject to such human traits as would not lead to any shortcoming in [the fulfilment of] their high office, e.g. [need for] food and drink, any sickness which is not repulsive, walking in the streets, buying and selling, lawful marital intercourse with women, and sleeping with the eye though not with the heart. Allah-exalted be He-supported them by wondrous miracles, such as our Master Moses' changing a staff into a serpent, or water bursting from the fingers of our Prophet -on whom be Allah's blessing and peace. The greatest of his (i.e. Muhammad's) miracles is the Qur'an, which men and jinn were incapable of imitating.

Q.: What is the number of the Apostles?

A.: They are many. None knows their number save Allah-exalted be He. Nevertheless it is incumbent to recognize twenty-five of them by their names.

Q.: Who are these twenty-five?

A.: They are Adam, Idris, Noah, Hud, Salih, Lot, Abraham, Ishmael, Isaac, Jacob, Joseph, Shu'aib, Aaron, Moses, David, Solomon, Job, Dhu'l-Kifl, Jonah, Elijah, Elisha, Zachariah, John, Jesus and Muhammad. May Allah's blessing and peace be on them all.

Q.: What is the Last Day, and what is meant by faith in it?

A.: The Last Day is the Day of Resurrection, and the meaning of faith in it is confident assertion of its reality as a coming event, and of all that it will comprise, such as the resurrection of created beings, their giving an account [of deeds done in the flesh], the weighing of their deeds, their passing over the Bridge, and the entering of some of them justly into the Fire, and some of them by grace into the Garden.

Q.: What is the meaning of faith in predestination?

A.: It is that you should firmly believe and confidently affirm that Allah -exalted be He-decreed both good and evil before the creation, that all that has been and all that will be is by the predetermination of Allah-exalted be He-by His decree and will. In the Traditions [there is a saying] that faith in this drives away both anxiety and grief.

An exposition of Islam

Q.: What is Islam?

A.: It is that you should bear witness that there is no deity save Allah, and that you should bear witness that Muhammad is the Apostle of Allah; that you should perform the prayers, pay the legal alms, fast [during] Ramadan, and go on pilgrimage to the House (i.e. the Meccan shrine) if you are able to make the journey thereto.

Q.: What is the meaning of the two acts of witnessing?

A.: The meaning of the first is that you should know, confidently affirm and acknowledge that there is no true object of worship in existence save Allah-praised and exalted be He. The meaning of the second is that you should know, confidently affirm and acknowledge that Muhammad is the Apostle of Allah, whom He sent to all mankind. His age at that time was forty years. He is the most excellent of created beings, be they in heaven or be they on earth. He-upon whom be Allah's blessing and peace-was born in Mecca, the ennobled city, which he left not till he had reached the age of fifty-three years, when Allah-exalted be He-bade him emigrate from it to Madina, the illuminated. So he emigrated from it to Madina where he died at the age of sixty-three.

An exposition of his genealogy, his progeny, his wives and his concubines-upon him be Allah's blessing and peace

Q.: What was his genealogy on his father's side?

A.: He was the son of 'Abdallah, son of 'Abd al-Muttalib, son of Hashim, son of 'Abd Manaf, son of Qusaiy, son of Hakim, son of Murra, son of Ka'b, son of Lu'ay, son of Ghalib, son of Fihr, son of Malik, son of an-Nadr, son of Kinana, son of Khuzaima, son of Mudrika, son of Ilyas, son of Mudar, son of Nizar, son of Ma'add, son of 'Adnan.

Q.: What was his genealogy on his mother's side?

A.: He was the son of Amina, daughter of Wahb, son of 'Abd Manaf, son of Zuhra, son of Hakim, the one mentioned above in the genealogy of his father.

Q.: How many children did he have?

A.: Seven, three males and four females. In order of their birth they were: Al-Qasim, then Zainab, then Ruqaiya, then Fatima, then Umm Kulthum, then 'Abdallah, then Ibrahim. All of them were by his wife Khadija, save Ibrahim, who was by his concubine, Mary the Copt.

Q.: How many wives did he have?

A.: They were twelve: Khadija daughter of Khuwailid, Sawda daughter of Zam'a, 'A'isha daughter of Abu Bakr, Hafsa daughter of 'Umar, Zainab daughter of Khuzaima, Hind daughter of Abu Umaiya, Zainab daughter of Jahsh, Juwairiya daughter of al-Harith, Raihana daughter of Zaid, Ramla daughter of Abu Sufyan, Safiya daughter of Huyaiy, and Maimuna daughter of al-Harith. Some hold that Raihana belongs to the concubines not to the wives.

Q.: How many concubines did he have?

A.: They are three: Mary the Copt, who was presented to him by the Muqawqas, ruler of Egypt; Nafisa, whom Zainab daughter of Jahsh gave to him, and a third; Zulaikha of the Quraiza. According to those who hold that Raihana was a concubine they would have been four.

An exposition of prayers services

Q.: What are prayers, and what is the meaning of performing them?

A.: Salat is the technical expression for the words and the acts beginning with the takbir and ending with the taslim, [gone through] in accordance with special regulations. The meaning of performing them is the carrying them through without omitting any of the proper and approved essentials, and avoiding anything that would invalidate [the prayers].

On the number of obligatory prayers and an exposition of the times for them, and the customs to be observed both before and after them

Q.: How many prayer services is it necessary to observe each day and night?

A.: Five prayer services are incumbent upon every Muslim who is of age and in the possession of his proper senses. Children should be bidden observe them at the age of seven, and at the age of ten should be beaten for omitting them, that thus they may become accustomed to observe them.

Q.: What is the first prayer service?

A.: It is the morning prayer. The number of its rak'as is two, but they are customarily preceded by two rak'as The time for it is [the period] from the breaking of the true dawn till the rising of the sun.

Q.: What is the second prayer service?

A.: It is the midday prayer. The number of its rak'as is four, which are customarily preceded by four and followed by four. The time for it is from the [commencement of the] decline of the sun until the shadow of any elongated object reaches the length of that object.

Q.: What is the third prayer service?

A.: It is afternoon prayer. The number of its rak'as is four, which are customarily preceded by four. The time for it is the period from the end of the noon period till the setting of the sun.

Q.: What is the fourth prayer service?

A.: It is the evening prayer. The number of its rak'as is three, which are customarily preceded by two and followed by two. The time for it is from the setting of the sun till the redness of the evening twilight disappears.

Q.: What is the fifth prayer service?

A.: It is the night prayer. The number of its rak'as is four, which are customarily preceded by two and followed by two, and then by the witr, the least number [of rak'as] for which is one rak'a and the most is eleven. The time for it is from the disappearance of the redness of the evening twilight till the breaking of the true dawn.

An exposition of the conditions for the validity of a prayer service

Q.: What are the conditions for the validity of a prayer service?

A.: They are five: that the body of the one who prays be in a state of ritual purity from hadath; that his body and clothing and the place where he is be in a state of ritual purity from uncleanness; that his pudenda be covered; that he be facing the qibla, and that he has entered one of the [prayer] periods explained above.

An exposition of hadath, its causes and what is made unlawful by it

Q.: What is hadath?

A.: It is of two kinds, a lesser, which makes wudu' or tayammum obligatory, and a greater, which makes ghusl or tayammum obligatory. There are causes for both kinds.

Q.: What are the causes of the lesser?

A.: They are five: (1) anything coming out of the rectum, and anything save semen from the genitals; (2) sleep, save what is possible while sitting upright on the ground; (3) unconsciousness caused by drunkenness, sickness, madness or swoon; (4) touching the human pudenda by the inner palm or the fingers; (5) the coming together of the epidermis of male and female who have reached the age of lustful desire and are not [within the] prohibited [degrees of relationship]. These five things make wudu' necessary and render five things unlawful [till wudu' is performed].

Q.: What are those five things?

A.: Prayers, circumambulation, [listening to] the Friday sermon, touching the Holy Book (mushaf) and carrying the same.

Q.: What are the causes of the greater hadath?

A.: Six things: (1) the emission of semen. This may be recognized either by its [actual] ejaculation, or by the pleasure felt at its emission, or by the presence of its smell, which when it is moist is like the smell of dough or date-palm pollen and when it is dry like the smell of white of egg. (2) Sexual intercourse by the insertion of the penis into the vulva or anus, whether of human or animal, and even if no semen descends. (3) Childbirth. (4) Menstruation, namely the blood which comes from the vagina of any female who has reached the age of nine years, the shortest [period of whose flow] is a night and a day and the longest fifteen days, though usually [it lasts] six or seven [days]. (5) After-birth, namely the blood which comes as a consequence of giving birth to a child, the shortest [period of whose flow] is a moment, and the longest sixty days, though usually [it lasts] forty days. (6) Death. These six make ghusl necessary, and the first three of them render eight things unlawful until ghusl has been performed.

Q.: What are those eight things?

A.: They are the five things already mentioned which are rendered unlawful by the lesser [hadath, to which are to be added] reading the Qur'an tarrying in a mosque, or even frequenting one. Menstruation and afterbirth render twelve things unlawful.

Q.: What are those twelve things?

A.: They are the eight things already mentioned together with fasting, divorce proceedings, marital intercourse, and fondling between the navel and the knees.

An exposition of ritual purification

Q.: What is ritual purification?

A.: It is of five kinds: viz. wudu', ghusl, tayammum, removal of filthiness, and purification after natural evacuations.

An exposition of wudu'

Q.: What is wudu'?

A.: It is the use of pure water on particular bodily members. With regard to it there are elements that are obligatory and others that are customary, and there are things which render it invalid.

Q.: What is pure water?

A.: It is that which has not been defiled, has not been used already for some [other] incumbent duty, whose taste and colour and smell have not been altered by mixture with any other pure thing such as musk, saffron, rosewater or flowers.

Q.: What are the elements in wudu' which are obligatory?

A.: They are six: (1) the intention (niyya), whose place is in the heart. It is customary for this to be uttered, e.g. by saying: "It is my intention to remove hadath" or "to perform the incumbent duty of wudu'" (2) the washing of the whole face; it is necessary for the intention to accompany the beginning of the washing as a part thereof; (3) the washing of the hands [and arms up] to the elbows; (4) wiping part of the head [with the wet hand]; (5) washing the feet and the ankles; (6) [doing all this in proper] order, so that a beginning is made with the washing of the face contemporaneously with the [expression of] intention, then washing the hands, then wiping the head and then washing the feet. It is also laid down as a condition of its validity that there be no interruption, and that the water flow upon the members.

Q.: What are the customary elements in wudu'?

A.: They are many. Among them are the cleansing of the teeth with the tooth-stick and washing the palms of the hands at the beginning, and commencing the washing by [pronouncing] the tasmiya with the tongue, and expressing intention in the heart of [performing] the customary elements of wudu' and then uttering it. Among them are the rinsing of the mouth, snuffing water up the nostrils, wiping the whole of the head, washing the ears along with the face-[washing], and wiping them along with the head-[wiping], and likewise after it, with fresh water. [Among them also are] finger-combing the thick hair of the beard and cheeks, though the thin hair needs must be combed with the fingers. Among them is giving precedence to the right over the left in washing the hands and the feet, and rubbing the members and contiguous parts during the washing, and going over whatever has to be washed three times. Also among them is the use of adhkar (invocations) over the prominent members.

Q.: What are those invocations?

A.: They are that one should say at the washing of the hands, after the basmala: "Praise be to Allah for Islam and for His grace. Praise be to Allah who has made water a purifying agent and Islam a light. O Lord, with Thee I take refuge from the evil suggestions of the satans, and with Thee, O Lord, I take refuge should they be present. Allahumma, preserve my hands from all disobedience to Thee." So at the time of the rinsing of the mouth one should say: "Allahumma, keep me occupied with remembering Thee and thanking Thee and worshipping Thee in goodly wise." At the snuffing of water into the nostrils [one should say]: "Allahumma, grant that I may smell the perfume of Paradise." At the washing of the face [one should say]: "Allahumma, make my face white on the Day when Thou whitenest and blackenest faces." At the washing of the right arm [one should say]: "Allahumma, grant that I may receive my book in my right hand, and give me an easy accounting." At the washing of the left arm [one should say]: "Allahumma, give me not my book in my left hand or behind my back." At the wiping of the head [one should say]: "Allahumma, forbid my hair and skin to the Fire [of Hell]." At the wiping of the ears [one should say]: "Allahumma, make me one of those who hearken to what is said and follow what thereof is best." At the washing of the two feet [one should say]: "Allahumma, make my feet firm on the Bridge on that Day when feet shall slip." It is also good that one should say after completing it (i.e. the wudu' ablution): "I bear witness that there is no deity save Allah, the One who has no partner, and I bear witness that our Master Muhammad is His servant and His Apostle. Allahumma, make me one of those who repent, make me one of those who are purified. Glory be to Thee, Allahumma! By Thy praise I bear witness that there is no deity save Thee. Thy forgiveness do I seek. To Thee do I turn in penitence." Then one should recite Sura XCVII: "We, indeed, sent it down", together with the Throne Verse (11, 255/256), and then pray two rak'as, expressing in both of them the intention to observe the sunna elements of wudu', and the same in the case of ghusl.

Q.: What are the things which render wudu' invalid?

A.: They are the five things which are its cause, as above mentioned. The occurrence of any one of these will make it invalid.

An exposition of ghusl

Q.: What is ghusl?

A.: It is bathing the body with pure water along with an expression of intention. Thus one who is polluted [from sexual intercourse] expresses the intention of removing the legal impurity, one who is [impure because] menstruating [expresses the intention] of removing the legal impurity of] menstruation, the one with after-birth that of removing the legal impurity of] after-birth. It is quite correct for each one to express the intention of removing all the greater hadath (i.e. without specifying which particular kind). Conditional for its validity is the running of the water on the body, and the absence of any impediment which would interfere with its reaching it. Among its customary elements are the washing of the palms of the hands beforehand, along with pronunciation of the tasmiya by the tongue and an expression of intention in the heart to observe the customary elements of ghusl. Then one should rinse the mouth, snuff water into the nostrils, perform a complete wudu', and then pour the water on the body, rubbing it and washing it thrice and finger-combing the light hairs. The heavy hair must needs also be finger-combed if otherwise the water would not get well into it.

An exposition of tayammum

Q.: What is tayammum?

A.: It is the use of sand (turab) on the face and hands to take the place of [the water of normal] wudu' or ghusl when water is unavailable, or is needed for satisfying the thirst of a venerated animal, or when there is fear of harm arising from its use in cases of sickness or wounds.

Q.: How is it performed?

A.: It is performed by smiting your two palms on the ground or on a pillow or some such mat so that the turab may adhere to them, while you express the intention of doing what is permitted for the requirements of prayer. Then with it you wipe your whole face, occupying your mind the meanwhile with the intention. Then you smite a second time and wipe your arms to the elbows. Conditional for its validity is that it be performed within the proper times for prayer, be preceded by the removal of whatever uncleanness there may be on the body, that this be only by pure sand which itself is dusty, and that there be no impediment which would hinder it from reaching the members. Sunna elements in it are that but little sand be used, that the fingers be separated during the process of smiting, and that the fingers comb one another after the wiping. Any ring [on the fingers] must be removed so that the sand may reach what is beneath it.

Q.: What invalidates it?

A.: It is invalidated by whatever invalidates wudu', by the disappearance of that which prevented the use of water, and by the sight of water if tayammum was being performed for lack thereof.

Q.: What is accomplished by a single performance of tayammum?

A.: By it is accomplished [the fulfilment of the] preliminaries for a single obligatory cult performance, whether it be of prayer or circumambulation or Friday sermon. If a second such is desired there must be [separate] tayammum for it. As regards the supererogatory (i.e. non-obligatory) cult performances a single performance of tayammum suffices for them all, and a tayammum performed for an obligatory cult performance may include them also.

Q.: Is there any condemnation for one who practises tayammum?

A.: Yes, if he practises tayammum because of the cold, or if [he uses the excuse that there is] lack of water and then goes and prays in a place where water will normally be found, though if he prays in a place here water is generally lacking, or where its presence or absence is equally likely, there is no condemnation.

An exposition of [what is meant by] uncleanness and how it may be removed

Q.: What is najasa (uncleanness)?

A.: It is of three kinds: (1) gross-namely the uncleanness of the dog or the pig or what comes from them; (2) light-namely the urine of a child under two years and whose nourishment has not gone beyond milk; (3) medium-what is other than these, which covers various things.

Q.: What are these various things?

A.: They are many. Among them are manure, urine, blood, pus, vomit, all kinds of fluid intoxicants, milk that is not used for human consumption, wada and madha the former of which is a thick, pearly-white fluid which exudes [from the genitals], usually after urination, but also when one is carrying something very heavy, and the latter thin, whitish or yellow fluid which exudes [from the genitals], usually when there has been a stirring of lustful desire which has not gone as far as [the orgasm of] pleasure. Among them are any dead save [the dead bodies of] humans, fish or locusts. Some include among them hair, fur, wool, feathers, since such things have a certain uncleanness. Any part which may be removed from a living animal [to be treated] like the dead thereof, unclean [if it is unclean], clean if it is clean], but any part which may be removed from a human, fish or a locust is clean. Any part which may be separated from other things is unclean save the hair, fur, wool and feathers of what is used as food, for they are clean.

Q: How may gross [uncleanness] be removed?

A.: Its removal may be effected by washing what has been in contact seven times in pure water, using pure sand (turab) in one [of the seven washings]. Those washings which remove the traces of the thing itself are to be counted as one [washing], and there needs must be six washings after it.

Q.: How may light [uncleanness] be removed?

A.: Its removal may be effected by sprinkling pure water on whatever has been in contact, till it is all covered, even though [the water] does not flow off, provided that the traces of the thing itself had been removed from the place before the sprinkling either by drying it off or by giving a powerful squeeze so that there remain no moisture which can be separated out.

Q.: How may the middling [uncleanness] be removed?

A.: Should it be invisible, namely [an uncleanness] which leaves no certain sign or trace in the way of taste or colour or odour, then its removal may be effected by the running of pure water once over that which has been in contact. Should it, however, be noticeable, namely something that has left a clear sign or trace as described above, then its removal may be effected by the removal of what is noticeable from the place where it has been in contact, even though it be necessary to use some such thing as soap. It is no matter if there remain a colour or an odour which resists removal.

An exposition of istinja'

Q.: What is the ruling about istinja'?

A.: It is necessary after every voiding of excrement from the anus or the genitals, though not in the case of semen. It is effected by [the use of] water or stones, and the combination of the two is preferable. If one should desire to confine oneself to one of the two then water is preferable. The essential thing in istinja' is to use a sufficient quantity in cleansing the parts that it may reasonably be assumed that the uncleanness has been removed. The sign of this is generally the appearance of hardness after softness. If the istinja' has been by means of stones, because one was confined to that, purification is conditional on five things.

Q.: What are those five things?

A.: They are: (1) that the excrement be not allowed to dry or transferred from the place where it came to rest; (2) that there be no foreign matter added thereto; (3) that [the rubbing by the stones] does not proceed beyond the orifice in question; (4) that it be a triple wiping each one of which goes over the place with three clean stones or with three applications of one clean stone; (5) if cleansing is not effected by the three applications then as many more must be applied as will effect it. It is no matter if some trace is left which can only be removed by water or by small pebbles, for that is pardonable.

An exposition of the covering of the pudenda

Q.: What are the pudenda which must be covered during prayer services . and likewise during Circumambulation [of the Ka'ba]?

A.: In the case of a male or a slave-girl they are whatever is between the navel and the knees. In the case of a free woman it includes all her body save the face and the hands. The covering should be so complete as to prevent any glimpse of its colour. The incumbent thing is that the covering should be from above and from the sides not from below, so that should they be seen from his collar-opening when he is bowing [in the prayer service], for example, that would be harmful, in contradistinction to their being seen from below his gown when he is prostrating, for that would do no harm. It is needful, however, for a woman to cover her legs from below, for were they to be seen from below the bed while she is standing thereon it would be harmful.

Q.: I have come to know about the [covering of the] pudenda during prayers and Circumambulation, but what about the pudenda on other occasions?

A.: In the case of a man; as concerns his privacy they are the genitals and the anus, as concerns the view of his women-folk who are forbidden to him and his fellow males they are whatever is between the navel and the knees, as concerns the view of strange women it is his whole body even though he be a decrepit old man. In the case of a woman; as concerns her privacy and the view of men who may [legitimately] enter the harim, and her fellow believing women, they are whatever is between the navel and the knees, as concerns the view of unbelieving women it is all her body save what is normally visible during the daily tasks, viz. the head, the face, the neck, the two arms as far as the upper arm, and the legs as far as the knees, as concerns the view of strange men it is her whole body without anything at all being excepted even though she be an old woman ugly to behold. Everything the viewing of which is forbidden when it is attached [to the person] is equally forbidden when it is unattached, so men are forbidden to look at a woman's hair when it is unattached and vice versa. Everything which is forbidden to the sight is also forbidden to the touch, so a man is forbidden to touch the hand of a woman and vice versa.

An exposition of the qibla and of having it before one

Q.: What is the qibla which it is necessary to have before one at the time of prayer services?

A.: It is the illustrious Ka'ba, which it is necessary to have one's breast facing while standing and sitting [during prayers], which one would have before one's face and breast when reclining, before one's face and soles, i.e. the soft lower parts beneath the feet, when lying on one's back. What is taken into account here is a true, accurate facing, with a drawing near to it in thought though far from it in body. [The qibla] may be recognized by various things.

Q.: What are these things?

A.: They are many. One of them is to watch for the official mihrabs which are set up to be seen by the one possessing sight, or to be touched by the blind or [by one who is] in the dark. Another is to keep the star called Qutb behind the left ear if you are in Egypt, behind the right ear if you are in Iraq, but the one who is in Yemen keeps it in front of him somewhat to his left, and one who is in Syria puts it behind him somewhat to his left.

An exposition of the essentials of prayer

Q.: What are the essentials (arkan) of prayer?

A.: They are thirteen. The first is the standing (qiyam), which is incumbant on one who is able. If one is unable [to stand upright] let him pray sitting, if he is unable [to do that] then let him pray reclining, and if he is unable [even to recline] let him pray lying on his back. The second is the intention (niyya), namely that one should say: "I express my intention of praying the obligatory morning prayer", or "I express my intention of praying the obligatory noon prayer", and so on. The third is the takbira of making sacred at the first rak'a. It [consists of saying]: "Allah is most great." Needs must the intention be in mind at the time of this takbira. The fourth is the recitation of the Fatiha (i.e. the opening Sura of the Qur'an) during the standing position for every rak'a. The fifth is the bowing (ruku') at every rak'a, in which one must bend till his palms reach his knees, and pause quietly with his limbs resting in this position at least long enough for [him to say]: "Subhanallah" (glory be to Allah). The sixth is the straightening up at every rak'a so that one resumes the standing position and pauses quietly therein. The seventh is the prostration (sujud), twice in every rak'a, in which one places his forehead, his knees, the inner part of his palms and the inner part of his toes to the ground. Needs must the forehead be uncovered and press heavily upon [the ground], while the buttocks are raised higher and he pauses there quietly. The eighth is the sitting (julus) between the two prostrations in every rak'a, and pausing quietly therein. The ninth is the sitting at the final rak'a, viz. the second at morning prayers, the third at evening prayers, and the fourth at the others. The tenth is the testifying (tashahhud) during the above-mentioned sitting. It consists in saying tahiyyat to Allah, then: "Peace be upon thee, O Prophet, and Allah's mercy and blessing. Peace be upon us and upon all pious worshippers of Allah. I bear witness that there is no deity save Allah, and that Muhammad is the Apostle of Allah." The eleventh is [calling down] blessings on the Proplict--upon whom be Allah's blessing and peace--after finishing the testifying. It [consists in saying]: "Allahumma, grant blessing to Muhammad." The twelfth is the taslim, which consists in saying once: "Peace be upon you." The thirteenth is that all the above should be done in proper order as we have mentioned them.

An exposition of the customary elements in prayer

Q.: What are the customary elements in saying prayers?

A.: They are of two kinds, known respectively as ab'ad and hay'at.

Q.: What are the ab'ad?

A.: They are five things. The first is testifying (tashahhud) during the second rak'a of every prayer that has three or four rak’as. The second is to pray for blessings on the Prophet after it. The third is to pray for blessings on the Prophet's family after praying for blessings on him in the final act of testifying. The fourth is [to say] the qunut at the rising erect in the second rak'a of the morning prayer every day, and at the rising erect during the final rak'a of the witr during the second half of the month of Ramadan The fifth is to ask blessings and peace on the Prophet, his family and his Companions after the qunut.

Q.: What is the qunut?

A.: It may consist in any formula containing eulogy and supplication, such as: "Allahumma! forgive me, O Forgiving One", but the form preferred is that you should say: "Allahumma! guide me among those whom Thou hast guided; pardon me among those whom Thou hast pardoned; take me as a friend among those whom Thou hast taken as friends; give me blessing in what Thou has bestowed; preserve me from the evil of that which Thou hast decreed, for Thou dost prescribe but no one prescribes to Thee. No one may be humbled whom Thou dost take in charge, nor may any one to whom Thou art hostile be exalted. Blessed art Thou, O our Lord, and exalted. To Thee be praise for what Thou hast prescribed. I seek forgiveness from Thee, and to Thee do I turn in penitence." Then you should say: "May Allah's blessing and peace be upon our Master Muhammad, and upon his family and his Companions."

An exposition of what is required in a prostration of unmindfulness

Q.: If any one should omit any of the above-mentioned ab'ad, what should he do?

A.: There is no obligation in such a case. His prayers are valid whether the omission was witting or unwitting. In either case, however, it is customary for him to perform a prostration of unmindfulness at the end of his prayers before saying the salam. This consists of two prostrations with an expression of intention in his heart before prostrating.

Q.: Is this prostration [of unmindfulness] customary on any other occasion?

A.: Yes. It is customary where [the worshipper is afraid that] something may have dropped out, though [in such a case] the doing of it in addition would be unobjectionable. For example, suppose that in a prayer of four rak'as doubt arises [in the worshipper's mind] whether he has performed the rak'as three or four times, since [the validity of the prayer] depends on the correctness of the number, three would be short, so [to make sure] he ought to add a rak'a. In such a case a prostration of unmindfulness would be customary. It is customary also in other situations, as for example in the case of the mutawwalat.

Q.: What are the hay'at of a prayer service?

A.: They are many, but should the one praying omit any of them his prayer service is still valid, and he should make no prostration of unmindfulness on account of them. Among them are the raising of the hands at the takbira of sanctification, and [a similar raising of the hands] at every bowing (ruku') and rising erect, also at the standing for the first testifying. Among them is the placing of the palm of the right hand on the back of the left hand below the heart but above the navel during the standing. Another is to sit for a rest each time one rises from a second prostration. Another is to say after the takbira of sanctification: "Great is Allah; very great, and greatly to be praised. Glory be to Allah both in the morning and in the evening." Another is to say the ta'awwudh before repeating the Fatiha, and the ta'min after [repeating it], at every rak'a. Another is to recite some verses of the Qur'an after the ta'min at morning prayers and at the beginning rak'as of all other prayer services. Another is to recite with a loud voice both the Fatiha and the portion from the Qur'an which is recited after it at night and at morning prayers, but to recite them softly during the daytime prayers. Another is to pronounce the takbir fi 'l-hawa' at every bowing (ruku') and every prostration (sujud), at the rising from each prostration, and at the first testifying. Another is that at each bowing (ruka') one should say three times: "Glory be to my Lord, the Mighty One", and at the rising therefrom: "May Allah give ear to him who praises Him", at the coming erect: "O our Lord, to Thee be praise", at the prostration: "Glory be to my Lord, the Highest One," three times, and at the sitting between the prostrations: "O Lord, forgive me, have mercy on me, restore me, raise me up, give me sustenance, guide me, preserve me and pardon me." Another is to use the completest [possible] form of testifyingand praying for blessings on the Prophet-upon whom be Allah's blessing and peace-at the final rak'a.

Q.: What is this completest form?

A.: It is that one should request of Allah tahiyyat, mubarakat, salawat, tayyibat, [saying]: "Peace be upon thee, O Prophet, and Allah's mercy and blessing. Peace be upon us and upon all pious servants of Allah. I bear witness that there is no deity save Allah, and I bear witness that our Master, Muhammad, is the Apostle of Allah. Allahumma! send blessings on our Master Muhammad, and on the family of our Master Muhammad, as Thou didst send blessings on our Master Abraham, and on the family of our Master Abraham; and send blessedness on our Master Muhammad and on the family of our Master Muhammad, as Thou didst send blessedness on our Master Abraham and on the family of our Master Abraham in the worlds. Thou art the Praiseworthy, the Glorious One." It is customary that, after [having said] that, one should make in one's own words petition for whatever one may wish, though [to make use of a form of supplication that has been] handed down by tradition is preferable. Such a [traditional] form is: "Allahumma! I take refuge with Thee from the torment of the tomb, from the torment of the Fire, from the trials (fitna) of both life and death, and from the fitna of the false Messiah. Then one should salaam to his right and to his left, saying at each salaam: "Peace be upon thee and the mercy of Allah."

An exposition of the things which invalidate prayers

Q.: What are the things which invalidate prayers?

A.: They are ten things. (1) The first is the greater or lesser hadath. (2) The second is the body or clothes of the one who prays or the place [where he is praying] being affected by uncleanness (najasa). (3) The third is the uncovering of his pudenda in any way. (4) The fourth is the utterance of any intelligible sound, or two sounds should they be unintelligible, other than [words of] recollection and supplication. (5) The fifth is the occurrence of [any one of] a number of actions, such, for example, as three steps, or three movements of the foot or the hand or the head. [In this connection] the putting out and drawing back of the hand, if uninterrupted [continuous motions], are counted as one movement, as likewise the raising and lowering of it, even though it is to some other place. The putting out of the foot, however, and the drawing it back are counted as two movements, even though it is an uninterrupted continuous motion, as likewise raising it and putting it down in another place. (6) The sixth is eating or drinking, inserting a pick in the ear, or any such thing as that, which in the case of one fasting would be considered as breaking the fast. (7) The seventh is any turning away from the qibla. (8) The eighth is altering the intention. (9) The ninth is the addition of any action to those that are prescribed. (10) The tenth is interrupting [the prayers] even though only by speaking.